Platform Apps as Sites of Production: Examining Control, Autonomy & Surplus Extraction in the Gig Economy

Abstract

The aim of this research was to explore the dimensions of control, autonomy and surplus extraction that operate in the On-Request Platform Economy, specifically focusing on the food delivery and ride hailing sectors. The research uses Labour Process Theory (LPT) as the analytical framework to identify the different forms of control that are exerted by platform companies. Five interconnected forms of control - direct, technical, computer (algorithm), normative & bureaucratic - were identified. An in depth exploration of the different ways in which these control types are exerted reveals that platforms have a significant influence over the labour process of a worker. The platforms are able to direct the labour effort of the worker and are able to extract excess labour effort. The 6R Framework is used to organise the data collected on control types. This helps to explore the variations in type and intensity of control between food delivery and ride-hailing sectors. The analysis using the 6R Framework - Restricting, Recommending, Recording, Rating, Replacement and Rewarding - revealed that the food delivery platforms exhibit stricter forms of control and surplus extraction compared to ride-hailing platforms, particularly through mechanisms like rigid disciplinary actions, mandatory acceptance of task and through wage manipulation. Finally, the research tries to critically examine the platform companies claim of being “digital intermediaries” and their rejection of claims that there exists a “Principal - Agent” relationship. Since, the platforms exist in a legal vacuum and regulatory grey space, such claims have largely gone unchecked. Using the “Control & Integration” test - the preferred test to judge the existence / non-existence of an employment relationship - the research is able to show that the claim of platform companies is a manipulation of facts. In reality, there exists an employer-employee relationship in the food delivery sector. Recent changes in company policy and standards in the ride-hailing sector indicate that while there does not exist an employer - employee relationship, there is a need to look at new forms of classifications beyond the traditional binaries (Employee or Independent Contractor) when looking at 21st Century jobs. Future course of action must include the government and civil society players increasing their monitoring and surveillance of the activities of platform companies to ensure that worker exploitation is minimised. Key Words : Labour Process Theory, Control, Variation in Control & “Control & Integration Test”